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How do we know that man went to the Moon? The Herald explains

Published

2 years ago

May 21, 2024

EVERY single argument claiming that NASA faked the Moon landings has been discredited. But even today, 50 years later, people discuss conspiracy claims online, on television programmes and around the dinner table.

Herald moon fact: With a powerful amateur telescope, you can see the Apollo landing sites and, if you look at the photos from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, you can spot the remnants of the Apollo missions yourself.

Were the Moon landings faked?

If you find yourself in a debate questioning whether humankind first stepped on the Moon on 20 July 1969, the chances are that you are woefully underprepared. Most people take it as gospel that the US government, NASA, the 12 astronauts in total who have walked on the Moon, and the 400,000 people involved in the Apollo programme would have neither the will nor the way to fake one of humanity’s greatest ever achievements.

But there are those who think the landings were a hoax. They claim the US government faked Apollo 11 and later missions either to deal a crucial blow to the USSR in the Space Race, or to boost NASA funding, or to divert attention away from the Vietnam War. The argument for any of these viewpoints rests on finding evidence that the landings were faked.

And more often than not, people point out peculiarities in specific images or videos to deal the critical blow. If someone uses these oddities as evidence, what do you say? Here are the most common arguments that support this view, and why each of them is wrong.

Evidence of the moon landings include items left there, reflectors installed on the surface, and lunar rocks brought back to Earth.

Photographic evidence

One of the most popular conspiracy arguments is that there are never any stars in Apollo photos. Free from Earth’s light pollution and hazy atmosphere, you would expect to see thousands of stars in all the astronauts’ images. Unfortunately, this argument rests on the photos being snapped during the lunar night. All manned missions to the Moon took place in sunny daytime. This meant starlight lost the battle against the very bright surface of the Moon, too dim to show up in photos.

Another common argument is that the crosshairs that appear in many Apollo images sometimes appear to be behind objects in the photos. If the images were real, this would be impossible, suggesting someone painted them on. But testing here on Earth has shown that the brightly lit objects make the crosshairs appear fainter. When these images are copied or scanned some of this detail is lost completely, giving the effect that the crosshair is behind the object in certain shots.

Others point to an oddity in a photo of a Moon rock taken during the Apollo 16 mission. There appears to be a ‘C’ written on it, like a lettered movie prop. Again, analysing the original photo there is no anomaly – the ‘C’ isn’t there. Most likely it was a piece of hair or thread introduced during copying.

A more subtle argument that the landings were faked is based on various misunderstandings of NASA equipment and lunar physics. A well-known example is the American flag that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin placed on the Moon. It appears to flutter in the wind in some photos. How could this happen when the Moon has no wind?

In fact, it isn’t fluttering at all. A horizontal rod at the top of the pole holds the flag unfurled. This makes it look like the wind is stopping it from hanging down. And there is a fluttering effect because the weak gravity on the Moon is not strong enough to uncrumple the flag. After a little waving while the astronauts planted the flags into the Moon’s surface, they have remained still ever since.

Fried by radiation

Perhaps the most convincing argument that the landings were faked has to do with something called the Van Allen belts. These are two giant doughnut-shaped belts surrounding the Earth. They are made of highly energetic charged particles from the solar wind. Some people believe humans couldn’t have passed through these belts without being exposed to lethal doses of radiation.

This was a genuine concern before the Apollo missions. And it is the reason scientists behind Apollo 11 made sure they protected the astronauts as best they could. They insulated the spacecraft from radiation with an aluminium shell. And they chose a trajectory from the Earth to the Moon which minimised the amount of time spent in the Van Allen belts.

Readings from the nine Apollo missions that reached the Moon showed the astronauts’ average radiation exposure was 0.46 radiation-absorbed dose (rad). This proved NASA was right to shield the astronauts from radiation. Though it’s less than that experienced by some nuclear energy workers, 0.46 rad is around 10 times more than the radiation exposure of medical professionals who routinely work with x-ray and radiotherapy machines.

Proof we walked on the Moon

Of course, until we return to the Moon there will always be anomalies and oddities in the records that can spark new claims that the Moon landings were faked. But it is the sheer size and variety of this record that proves every one of these claims to be false.

From the Apollo Moon missions, there are 8,400 publicly available photos, thousands of hours of video footage, a mountain of scientific data, and full transcripts and audio recordings of all air-to-ground conversations. We even have 382 kilograms of Moon rock that Apollo astronauts brought back to Earth. These rocks have been independently verified as lunar by laboratories around the world, ruling out a US conspiracy.

If this is not enough to convince the most hardened sceptic, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) might sway them. Today, LRO takes high-resolution pictures of the lunar surface from a low orbit. During its mission, it has captured the landing sites and the abandoned descent modules and rovers from the Apollo missions. And its resolution is so good it has picked up the dark squiggly paths that the astronauts’ footprints made. Spacecraft from China, India and Japan have also spotted these landing sites, providing further independent verification of the landings.

A final nail in the coffin of the Moon hoax theories is a simple instrument installed 50 years ago by Apollo 11. During their day on the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin planted a lunar laser ranging retroreflector array on the surface. It’s still operational today and allows us to reflect lasers off of it and measure the distance to the Moon down to the centimetre. We simply couldn’t do this if we hadn’t visited the Moon.

Community

Murals legacy honoured at Town Hall

Published

11 hours ago

February 4, 2026

Tom Sinclair

Artist Jeanne Lewis recognised as Pembroke celebrates 20 years of historic artwork

MRS JEANNE LEWIS and her daughter were guests of honour at a special presentation at Pembroke Town Hall on Tuesday to mark the 20th anniversary of the historic murals installed inside the building.

Two handcrafted benches, gifted by Pembroke Town Council, were presented in appreciation of the artwork created by Jeanne and her late husband, George Lewis, whose striking panels have become a defining feature of the Hall over the past two decades.

The murals, which vividly depict scenes from Pembroke’s past, have long drawn praise from residents and visitors alike for their scale, colour and intricate storytelling.

The Mayor of Pembroke, Gareth Jones, joined councillors and volunteers from Pembroke Museum to present Mrs Lewis with a Certificate of Appreciation and a bouquet of flowers in recognition of the couple’s lasting artistic legacy.

Councillor Jones said the town was “extremely fortunate and deeply privileged” to house the collection.

He added: “People often walk into the Town Hall and simply stop to look. The detail and the history captured in these murals are remarkable. They give visitors a real sense of Pembroke’s story and reflect the dedication and talent Jeanne and George brought to the project.”

Twenty years on, the artwork continues to enrich the civic building, ensuring the Lewis family’s contribution remains at the heart of the town’s heritage.

Photo caption: Jeanne Lewis receives a certificate from Mayor Gareth Jones at Pembroke Town Hall, marking 20 years since the installation of the town’s historic murals (Pic: Martin Cavaney/Herald).

Community

Celebrating nature recovery through Cysylltu Natur 25×25

Published

18 hours ago

February 4, 2026

Richard Lewis

A CELEBRATION event was held on Saturday, January 24 in Cwm Gwaun to mark the achievements of Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority’s Cysylltu Natur 25×25 project, bringing together volunteers, farmers and staff involved in delivering nature restoration across North Pembrokeshire.

The landscape-scale project was funded by the Welsh Government through the Nature Networks Programme, delivered by the Heritage Fund. The Programme aims to strengthen ecological connectivity and resilience by restoring habitats at scale.

Those attending the event heard about the wide range of conservation activity delivered through the project across the north of the National Park. This has included practical works to restore grazing to Rhos pasture to benefit marsh fritillary butterflies and southern damselflies, specialist work to conserve rare lichens, volunteer chough, dormouse and harvest mouse monitoring, safeguarding greater horseshoe bat hibernation sites, and targeted action to tackle invasive species threatening important sites.

Volunteers, farmers, land managers and contractors played a vital role in the success of the project, contributing local knowledge, practical skills and ongoing commitment to caring for Pembrokeshire’s unique landscapes and wildlife in the long term.

Mary Chadwick, Conservation Officer for Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority, said: “Cysylltu Natur 25×25 has shown what can be achieved when farmers, volunteers and conservation specialists work together with a shared aim.

“From monitoring some of our most elusive species to restoring and protecting habitats, the dedication of everyone involved has made a real difference for nature across the National Park.”

Although the Cysylltu Natur 25×25 project is now coming to an end, the important work it has supported will continue. Building on its successes, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority will carry this momentum forward through the next phase of nature recovery work under NNF4 Cysylltiadau Naturiol / Naturally Connected, ensuring ongoing protection and enhancement of habitats for future generations.

Community

Princess of Wales praised for ‘skill’ during local wool mill and factory visit

Published

1 day ago

February 3, 2026

Tom Sinclair

Royal tour shines spotlight on west Wales textile heritage and local jobs

CATHERINE, Princess of Wales was told “she’s got the skill” after trying her hand at traditional textile work during a visit to west Wales on Tuesday (Feb 3).

The royal spent the day meeting staff and apprentices at two well-known manufacturers – Melin Tregwynt in Pembrokeshire and Hiut Denim in Cardigan – highlighting the region’s long-standing reputation for craftsmanship and small-scale, high-quality production.

Stitching and mending at historic mill

At Melin Tregwynt, a family-run woollen mill that now operates as an employee-owned trust, the princess was guided through each stage of production, from weaving to finishing.

In the quality control room she was invited to mend a blanket using a needle and thread, carefully repairing the fabric under the watchful eye of experienced staff.

Paula Harding, who has worked at the mill for more than a decade, praised her technique, saying: “She did it right – and she didn’t go through the other side. That’s skill. She’s got the skill.”

Laughing, the princess told workers: “You make it look so easy,” adding that the craft was clearly “a labour of love”.

She asked questions about the history of the business, which has produced Welsh-designed blankets and throws for more than a century, and spoke with several generations of the same families who have worked at the mill.

‘Made in Wales’ denim

Later, the princess travelled to Hiut Denim, the Cardigan-based firm credited with bringing jeans manufacturing back to the town after large factories closed in the early 2000s.

The company now focuses on small-batch, premium denim and employs skilled cutters and machinists locally.

During a tour of the factory floor, the princess tried cutting out a pair of jeans and helped stitch a “Made in Wales” label onto a finished pair that staff said would be presented to the Prince of Wales.

“He will love those,” she replied.

She joked that there was “no pressure” when handed the cutting tools and said she enjoys making clothes herself, admitting the most adventurous project she had attempted was sewing a pair of pyjamas.

The royal also stopped to greet Barney, the factory’s English cocker spaniel, drawing smiles from staff.

Meeting well-wishers

Crowds gathered outside both sites to catch a glimpse of the visitor, with the princess spending time chatting with families and children before moving on.

The visit forms part of ongoing efforts by the royal household to showcase traditional industries and skilled manufacturing across the UK, with west Wales’ textile sector recognised as a key part of the region’s heritage and economy.

For workers at both businesses, the message was simple: the spotlight on locally made products and homegrown skills was just as important as the royal presence itself.